The Exclusinary Rule essay

The Exclusinary Rule essay The Exclusinary Rule essay The Exclusinary Rule essayIt has been found that the Exclusionary Rule is one of the major topics associated with the application of the Fourth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution.   According to researchers, the Exclusionary Rule â€Å"requires the suppression of any evidence obtained unconstitutionally; that is the evidence cannot be used in the trial by the government†(Hensley Snook, 2007, p. 160). Actually, the Exclusionary Rule is not included in the U.S. Constitution, but it was established by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1914, while ruling the case Weeks v. United States (1914).   In general, the Exclusionary Rule has been a controversial legal issue in the criminal justice system, since its creation because the application of the rule to the legal case may affect the significance of the evidence through its exclusion, and the acquittal of the individuals who can be regarded factually guilty (Hemmens et al., 2009). There are three major exceptions to the Exclusionary R ule created by the U. S. Supreme Court, including independent source exception, good faith exception and inevitable discovery rule, which justify the applicability of the rule.The major goal of this paper is to discuss the Exclusionary Rule and its exceptions created by the U. S. Supreme Court, paying due attention to the background information regarding the Exclusionary Rule and the current status of the rule.The Exclusionary Rule: background informationThe Exclusionary Rule can be viewed as an important constitutional development that can be effectively used in the criminal justice practice. In fact, the Exclusionary Rule says that â€Å"evidence that is obtained by an unconstitutional search or seizure is inadmissible at trial† (Bast Hawkins, 2010, p. 573). The Exclusionary Rule announced by the U.S. Supreme Court in 1914 continues to play an important role in legal practice. However, initially, the Exclusionary Rule was not included in the due process clause of the Fourt eenth Amendment to the U.S. Constitution. As such, the Exclusionary Rule was not applied to various legal proceedings of the State Courts. In 1961, reviewing the case Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, this application of the Exclusionary Rule was changed because the U.S. Supreme Court â€Å"declared that the evidence obtained in violation of the Constitution could not be used in state or federal criminal proceedings† (Bast Hawkins, 2010, p. 573).The major goal of the Exclusionary Rule is to deter police misconduct or unethical behavior in relation to community members. The proponents of the Exclusionary Rule state that the rule emanates from the U.S. Constitution, while the opponents of the rule state that it has elation to the established constitutional rights (Kerr, 2010). Actually, â€Å"the Supreme Court has indicated that it is merely a judicially created remedy for Violations of the Fourth Amendment†(Hemmens et al., 2009, p. 127).In addition, the Exclusionary Rule has been a controversial issue in the criminal justice system. The intense debates were connected with the lack of the proper textual language in the U.S Constitution regarding the applicability of the rule. This fact can be explained by the fact that many opponents the rule suggest that the authority of the U.S. Supreme Court has been exceeded by this rule. They argue that the legislative branch is responsible for issuing such laws, rules and regulation (Bast Hawkins, 2010).However, there is another view of this issue. The proponents of the Exclusionary Rule consider that the Bill of Rights is unproductive without the application of the Exclusionary Rule (Kerr, 2010). In fact, many issues can be resolved prior to trial in the court through the application of the so-called motion to suppress (Bast Hawkins, 2010; Hemmens et al., 2009). The United States is the only nation that protects citizens from illegal searches and seizures conducted by the police through the application of the E xclusionary Rule.Current status of the Exclusionary Ruleand its exceptions created by the U. S. Supreme CourtIn the 1980s, the scope of the Exclusionary Rule was limited by more conservative action of the U.S. Supreme Court. As a matter of fact, there are three major exceptions that should be taken into consideration by the Court, including â€Å"independent source exception, good faith exception and inevitable discovery rule† (Siegel, 2009, p. 345). Court decisions refer to the situations in which the evidence obtained by the police can be viewed as admissible in court; even there are some violations in police conduct or in the warrant issued by the court (Kerr, 2010).Independent source exception  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Independent source exception is a rule that permits the admission of evidence that has been obtained â€Å"by means wholly independent of any constitutional violation† (Siegel, 2009, p. 345). For example, if a police officer makes a decision to enter the house of a drug dealer or any other person involved in criminal activity with an arrest warrant, he has the right to search his house in order to seize important evidence, such as drugs, weapons, etc. The illegally obtained evidence can be used in the court, if, independently, a warrant has been issued to search the house for the same kind of evidence but â€Å"had not yet arrived in the scene† (Siegel, 2009, p. 345). In other words, independent source exception can be viewed as the admissible evidence obtained by the police if they can prove its independent source not linked with the illegal search or seizure (Siegel, 2009). There are two cases that can be used as examples of application of this rule: United States v. Crews (1981) and State v. O’Brernski (1967). In the case United States v. Crews (1981), the Court ruled that the initial illegal use of evidence could not affect the prosecutors’ decision to prove guilt through the applicati on of evidence obtained by the police in a constitutional manner. In the case State v. O’Brernski (1967), the testimony of a teenager girl, who was found in the house during the illegal search, regarding the defendant’s involvement in sexual activity with her, can be regarded as admissible in the court.Good faith exceptionGood faith exception to the Exclusionary Rule is a rule that permits the admission of evidence obtained by the police even there were some mistakes which can be characterized as honest, reasonable and objective. Actually, â€Å"the honest and objectively reasonable belief† by the police officer is crucial to make the act lawful (Hensley Snook, 2007, p.345). According to the court’s decision, there are seven situations that come from actual legal cases and constitute the exceptions to the Exclusionary Rule under the category of good faith exception:when the judge (or magistrate) made a mistake (the case Massachusetts v. Shappard, 1984);w hen the court employee made a mistake (the case Arizona v. Evans, 1995);when the police officers â€Å"erroneously, but honestly and reasonably† believed that the information they provided to the court was accurate (the case Maryland v. Garrison, 1987);when the police believed the person, who permitted them to enter a building or a house, was authorized to do so (the case Illinois v. Rodrigues, 1990);when the police officers obtained evidence, relying on mistakes of other police officers, and these â€Å"errors were merely negligent and isolated and not systematic, recurring and deliberate† (the case Herring v. United States, 1990);when the police officered conducted a search based on legal precedent established by the court (the case Davis v. United States, 2011) (Hensley Snook, 2007; Bast et al., 2010).Inevitable discovery ruleInevitable discovery rule is the exception to the Exclusionary Rule that permits the admission of evidence obtained the police if the police officers can prove that they would inevitably have discovered the evidence anyway by lawful means (Hemmens et al., 2009). In other words, â€Å"this rule holds that the evidence obtained through unlawful search or seizure is admissible in court if it can be established to a very high degree of probability, that police investigation would be expected to lead to the discovery of the evidence† (Siegel, 2009, p. 345). The case Nix v. Williams (1984) is based on the application of the inevitable discovery rule.Conclusion  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚   Thus, it is necessary to conclude that the Exclusionary Rule is an important constitutional development that is aimed at discouraging law enforcement personnel from being engaged in misconduct. In other word, the Exclusionary Rule is effective in preventing the admission into evidence obtained by police officers unconstitutionally. Generally speaking, the Exclusionary Rule is justified because it helps to deter illegal s earches and seizures.

Logical Intervention in Vietna essays

Logical Intervention in Vietna essays American military intervention in Vietnam has always been a highly controversial issue. Many Americans were against intervention in Vietnam. Many Americans question rather the United States should have ever sent troops to Southeast Asia, and if intervention was the correct action, based on foreign policy and bipartisan ideas. After observation of these ideas, it is safe to say that foreign policy and bipartisan ideas justified American military intervention. First of all the United States stance on foreign policy needs to be observed. After World War II the United States became the most powerful nation, it had ever been. The United States had ideas of spreading the American values of liberty, equality, and democracy throughout the world.1 During this time the Soviet Union was less focused on spreading their Communist ideas, and more focused on rebuilding there country, which was demolished during World War II.2 As unthreatening as this seems now, the United States had a great distrust of Russia. The American peoples anti-Nazi sentiments, of World War II, began to be anti-Soviet. The United States and the Soviet Unions conflicting aims and equal distrust were two of the main reason the Cold War began. All Americans, Democrats and Republicans, were allied against the Soviet Union. The Democratic president Truman and his predecessor Eisenhower, a Republican, were both anti-Communist and anti-Soviet. Another policy at this time was containment. The policy was defined by George F. Kennan.3 In a nut shell, the policy stated that Americans should try to stop the spread of Communism. This policy, directed mainly at the Soviet Union, used by the all of the Presidents, though given different monikers, from 1946 until after the Vietnam War. During these times, from about 1945 to 1954, the Vietnamese were fighting a war against France. The Vietnamese sought independence while the Frenc ...

Nursing barriers to effective pain management Essay

Nursing barriers to effective pain management - Essay Example A brief overview of the barriers to effective pain management Failure of nurses to proiritise pain relief Some nurses are ignorant to the priority of pain relief as an ethical and moral requirement of the medical profession in relation to denying patients therapeutic support while citing the lack of remedies. Cassell argues that modern medicine has failed to adequately address patient suffering, which should be a core value in an efficient system of medicine (Pasero and McCaffery 2011, pp. 25). The curative model adopted in major healthcare institutions denies chronically and terminally ill patients a chance of good healthcare. This is in support of what Henke, Frogge and Goodman (2005, p. 649) termed as the fear of medical professionals including nurses to be subjected into regulatory scrutiny by governmental agencies. Another nursing barrier towards effective pain management entails the curative model. This model tends to prioritise scientific objectivity undermining the patientâ⠂¬â„¢s own experiences, which could sometimes be more relevant. The clinician is alienated from the patient’s experience of illness, pain, anxiety and emotional distress which are inherent to illness, and with such a chasm existing, the clinician cannot identify with patients suffering (Cox, 2009, pp. 46). This should forms better part of communication between the patient and the nurse. Surgeon Sherwin Nuland best exemplifies the curative model in his description of attempts to treat an elderly, terminally ill patient, Hazel Welch, acknowledging that in pursuit of the cause of illness the patient’s best interests may not be served. In this case, pain alleviation was the priority (Rich, 2006, pp. 56). In essence, the curative model vilifies death as a phenomenon that ought to be fought until all treatment proves futile. This is best exemplified by the negligible number of terminally ill patients under hospice care (Pasero and McCaffery, 2011 pp. 32). The patient is perc eived as a vessel for the disease, and the clinician is mandated to administer the right diagnosis and an accurate prognosis; any need for palliative care is lost in the search for a cure. Curative method does not perceive a condition worse than death while pursuing a cure, for example, a prolonged existence in the vegetative state or extreme pain while pursuing therapeutic interventions. It fails to realise that care is equally important to curing (Moore, 2012, pp. 19). Lack of sufficient knowledge among practitioners The nursing fraternity has continually experienced the lack of adequate training, especially in pain management. Most medical institutions have not been able to offer pain management in their curriculum making it difficult for the nurses to handle patients when they start working at a hospital. However, it is apparent that some of the incidences of lack of sufficient knowledge in the pain management are attributed to ignorance by the nurses themselves. It is up to nur ses to have full information on how they can manage patient’s pain (Thomas 2011, pp. 8). Nevertheless, there is a need for learning institutions to make it mandatory that all nurses undertake a course in pain management. In addition, practicing nurses should be subjected to performance scrutiny by a governmental agency in order to ascertain

Biography of Ethnic Fashion Designer - Ritu Kumar Essay

Biography of Ethnic Fashion Designer - Ritu Kumar - Essay Example The paper "Biography of Ethnic Fashion Designer - Ritu Kumar" talks about the Ritu Kumar's biography. She completed her graduation from Delhi Irwin collage in 1964. She had the nature of keen observation in understanding the life. This quality further helped her to take keen interest in artistic work. She accomplished her higher education from USA in 1966. She started her career with hand block printers and two tables in a small village of Calcutta, to display her art. She enhanced her network with the passage of time in order to keep pace with the latest trends of fashion designing. She has also hit the European market by launching new fashion variety of indo-western range. This new trend attracted many foreign buyers. Her worth deserving achievements include wardrobe for Miss India for further participation in miss world and miss universe contests. Ritu’s work in the fields of garment and related accessories in silk, cotton and leather made her an eminent designer in India. The well-reputed designer launched Zardozi collection in Delhi in1985. Zardozi was introduced for the first time in India but response was exceptional. Now Zardozi technique is being widely used in India. She also proved that hand made products are more profitable than machine products. Evening gowns are one of the highly praised creations of Ritu kumar in European market. The designer was awarded with the lifetime achievement award by national institute of fashion technology in 1998. A lady naming famina participated in Miss India contest 2002.

How to Empower Employees Essay Example for Free

How to Empower Employees Essay In today’s marketplace it is more important than ever to implement employee empowerment policies in order to keep a competitive advantage. An empowered employee feels in control of their position, as well as a valued member of their organization. These employees have a sense of job enrichment which creates a more productive work environment for them, as well as their coworkers. Employee empowerment is a way to allot power in the company while raising productivity and creating job fulfillment in the organization. This helps to offer some valuable advantages to the organization and lowers the employee turnover rate (Korkmaz, 2012). There are many different ways a company can increase employee empowerment. A few important examples are by allowing for a large degree of autonomy, creating jobs with significance and areas for future advancement, giving and receiving employee feedback, and having a competitive benefit and compensation program for employees. These enrichment techniques will help to improve productivity, create higher employee morale, relieve some of the pressure on management, and help to recruit high-skilled individuals for employment (Gerhart, Hollenbeck, Noe, 2011). The most important technique with regards to employee enrichment is Autonomy, which is adding more freedom in the decision making ability an employee holds. This is a great way to empower an employee. Two examples of this would be giving an employee the ability to decide the best process for creating a project, rather than instructing them on definite steps to take. One may also receive the authority to handle customer complaints. These critical thinking practices will make an employee much more involved in their position, while helping to relieve management of the constant supervision of less important tasks (Hardrà © Reeve, 2009). Another effective method would be creating a position which conveys a sense of importance, as well as having the possibility for promotion. This is a great way to create a long lasting relationship with an employee, while also encouraging them to strive for future advancement. Stressing the importance of the job at hand will motivate the employee, while giving them a greater sense of pride in the position they hold. This could be demonstrated by getting the employee involved in the bigger picture of what a company is trying to accomplish (Gerhart et al, 2011). Another technique with regards to employee enrichment is giving and receiving employee feedback. This action helps to motivate the employee by constructing positive reinforcement on the favorable aspects of their performance. This aids in guiding the employee with direct future expectations and goals, while also verbally rewarding them for their positive characteristics. This is a very motivating, yet cost effective technique that will benefit both the employee and the company. By also allowing the employee to give feedback regarding management and production, the employee gains a feeling that their opinion is meaningful and beneficial to the operations of the company(Harms Roebuck, 2010). The last example for creating employee empowerment is to have a competitive benefit plan for employees. Along with some of the benefits included in a standard plan, some examples of benefits that empower employees could include letting an employee create their own schedule, giving extra time off for meeting certain requirements, and the ability to choose certain assignments over others. Other ways to empower employees through benefits would be to allow each member to pick and choose what benefits are right for them based on their specific lifestyles. (Gerhart et al, 2011). Empowering employees is an important aspect for any company. There are many enrichment techniques that can be implemented to improve productivity, raise employee morale, and recruit high skilled employees for future success. By applying these techniques, management gives their company the competitive advantage over the rest, while creating long lasting relationships with their employees. References Gerhart, B., Hollenbeck, J., Noe, R., Wright, P. (2011). Analyzing Work and Designing Jobs. Fundamentals of Human Resource Management, 95-116, 390-404. Hardrà ©, P. L., Reeve, J. (2009). Training corporate managers to adopt a more autonomy-supportive motivating style toward employees: an intervention study. International Journal Of Training Development, 13(3), 165-184. Harms, P. L., Roebuck, D. (2010). Teaching the Art and Craft of Giving and Receiving Feedback. Business Communication Quarterly, 73(4), 413-431. Korkmaz, O. (2012). Differences in Employees Perception of Employee Empowerment Practices. European Journal Of Social Science, 34(1), 43-57.

The Dangers of Ritalin :: Argumentative Health ADD Essays

  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The parents of six year old James Patrick Smith receive a phone call from the school guidance counselor informing them of their child's recent hyperactive behavior. After a short conference, the guidance counselor suggests to the parents a solution for young James' problem; as a result, the family visits their family doctor and the doctor diagnoses James with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD) during a one hour appointment. To remedy the disorder, the doctor prescribes the "savior drug" for ADD patients; children are almost always fed the drug Ritalin, a prescription medicine that packs a strong euphoric punch (Machan 151). The preceding hypothetical situation commonly occurs in the United States at a growing rate which may be too fast for the nation to contain. The over-prescription of the drug Ritalin to correct ADD produces many negative side effects upon patients and society.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In the vast market of prescription drugs, Ritalin, one of the most highly used drugs, also carries with it some of the greatest medical drawbacks. ADD or Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) stands tall as America's number one psychiatric disorder (Hancock 52). Estimates suggest that more than two million children live with the disorder; in addition, according to Dr. Daniel Safer of Johns Hopkins University, over 1.3 million regularly consume Ritalin for treatment of ADD (Hancock 52). Ritalin appears to be a popular choice for doctors, but the daily effects of the drug, which family physicians do not see, creates questions as to how well the drug actually works. Scientifically know as methylphenidate, Ritalin stimulates the central nervous system with similarities to amphetamines in the nature and extent of its effects; furthermore, it supposedly activates the brain stem arousal system and the cerebral cortex (Bailey 3). The key factor remains that doctors and researchers are not sure of what precisely occurs when Ritalin invades the human body. Hancock notes that no definite long-term studies exist to assure parents that Ritalin does not cause more or less havoc in their child, nor does any disease accompany prolonged usage (52). Testing results released by the Federal Drug Administration (FDA) in February 1996, show a study of mice in which a rare form of liver cancer arose as a result of Ritalin; however, the FDA still regards Ritalin as "safe and effective" (Hancock 56). Offering almost as many side effects as the number of people who take the drug, Ritalin alters many different aspects of the body. Just a few symptoms cited by Bailey include: nervousness, insomnia, loss of appetite, dizziness, heart palpitations, headaches, extreme weight loss, skin rashes, possible psychotic episodes, and severe withdrawals (3).

Diagnostic and Statistics Manual for Mental Disorders Essay

Although Gender Identity Disorder (GID) and homosexuality has been in the American Psychiatric Association’s (APA) Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) for many years, I was personally unaware of the controversy that surrounded it. I realized that I needed to educate myself in the issues and changes that have occurred in the DSM regarding GID and homosexuality over the years. The APA is in the process of revising its DSM and part of that process has been to create a Work Group on Sexual and Gender Identity Disorders (WGSGSID). The Work Group is one of 13 groups participating in the DSM-V revision process (Drescher, 2010). There has been a high level of concern from the lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender (LGBT) community in regards to the status of the category of GID in the DSM (Drescher, 2010). Activists argued that it is wrong to label expressions of gender variances as symptoms of a mental disorder. Advocates for the removal of the GID compare it to the removal of homosexuality in 1973 (Drescher, 2010). According to the World Professional Association for Transgender Health, people experiencing â€Å"strong cross-gender identification and a persistent discomfort with their sex or a sense of inappropriateness in the gender role of that sex† were diagnosed with transexualism in the DSM-III. In 1994, the DSM IV changed that diagnosis to GID. (Drescher, 2010). Removing GID from the DSM would be a major step in destigmatizing the lives of transgendered people, however it would come at a price and this will be reviewed in this paper. Individuals that identify as gay, lesbian, bi-sexual or transgendered do not believe that they have a disorder and are mentally ill. The inclusion of gender nonconformity among disorders creates stigma for transgendered individuals in society. In 1973, homosexuality was declassified in the DSM (second edition), however, transgender identity and expression still remains. In this paper I will discuss issues of gender identity, how they are defined in the DSM, and the controversy that surrounds them. History of Gender Identity Disorder (Transgender) I’ve always learned that to understand the issues of today we must look at history. And so we don’t repeat the misfortunes of yesterday we must learn from them. So, for this section I have researched a brief history of Gender Identity Disorder and how it became a psychiatric classification. Under diagnostic codes in the DSM, transvestic fetishism, formerly transvestism, (TF) means to wear the clothing of the opposite sex. This term was created and used by Magnus Hirshfeld in 1910. Transsexualism, also termed by Hirchfeld in 1923, first appeared in the DSM-III (1980) as a diagnostic category. Currently in the DSM, heterosexual men can be diagnosed with TF if they meet only two criteria: they have sexual fantasies about cross-dressing and those fantasies cause â€Å"impairment in social, occupational, or other important areas. † DSM Manual The DSM-5 (Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, 5th edition) development timeline began almost ten years ago with a series of meetings and conferences that summarized the findings that had accumulated in the scientific literature since the publication of DSM-IV and then developed research agendas for DSM-5 (Narrow & Cohen-Kettenis, 2010). There are no restraints on the amount of change that can occur in formulating the DSM-5, provided that the changes are based on sound research findings and will enhance its clinical usefulness (Narrow & Cohen-Kettenis, 2010). The DSM-5 Task Force is composed of workgroup chairs and professionals from other stakeholder groups including APA governance representatives. There is a consumer representative on the task force and the members of the task force are diverse in ethnic and racial groups and gender. There are 13 workgroups, and the workgroups focus on specific diagnostic areas (Narrow & Cohen-Kettenis, 2010). The taskforce and workgroups are composed of 163 members, 39 of whom are from outside the United States. Thirty percent of the members are female, 18% are non-Caucasian, and there is a diversity of disciplines represented. There is a DSM-5 Web site, www. dsm5. org, which contains Task Force meeting summaries, workgroup progress summaries, the names of the members of the taskforces and workgroups and their disclosure information (Narrow & Cohen-Kettenis, 2010) . There has been a subworkgroup formed to work on the Gender Identity Disorder. Four topics were nominated by the group to discuss: general issues, the differences and similarities between homosexuality and GID with regard to the DSM; and specific research literature of the criteria for GID in adolescents and adults (Narrow & Cohen-Kettenis, 2010) . One of the first things that the subgroup did was distribute a short survey amongst transgender organizations. The survey was designed to help the group learn what transgender organizations, not only in the United States and Europe but also worldwide, were thinking about various hot topics in gender identity. They were interested in suggestions for possible reconstruction of the diagnosis if it were to remain a diagnosis in the DSM-5 (Narrow & Cohen-Kettenis, 2010) . More than 50% of respondents believed that GID should not stay in the DSM. Political and educational transgender organizations were very much in favor of removing GID from the DSM. The political groups had the highest percentages (75%) favoring removal of the diagnosis, followed by the educational groups (70%) (Narrow & Cohen-Kettenis, 2010) . The DSM is a political document—a social construction—shaped more by sociocultural influences than the demands of practicing professionals in the field of mental health (Conner-Greene, 2006). The DSM has become a profoundly powerful book in terms of the health insurance industry, the pharmaceutical industry, and even the courts (Conner-Greene, 2006). Problems with the Current Diagnostic Criteria for GID Some reasons given for deleting GID from the DSM included: (1) concerns that the diagnosis inappropriately pathologized an aspect of one’s identity; (2) the conviction that the diagnosis is stigmatizing and that this is a major cause of distress; (3) the potential use of the diagnosis as a discriminatory tool, resulting in, for example, exclusion from military service or healthcare services; and finally (4) the belief that GID is a neurological or brain phenomenon, not a mental disorder (Narrow & Cohen-Kettenis, 2010). Support of Keeping the GID Diagnosis in the DSM The most important reason cited for allowing the diagnosis to persist was insurance reimbursement and legal advocacy. Some members and advocates of the trans community expressed concern that deleting GID from the DSM-V would lead third party payers to deny access to care for those transgender adults already having issues with inadequate private and public sources of healthcare (Drescher, 2010). Some argued that keeping the diagnosis of GID in the DSM would make it harder to misdiagnose transgender individuals with other mental illnesses. Others suggested that it would be easier for family and friends to accept a transgender person’s identity if this identity had an official place somewhere (Narrow & Cohen-Kettenis, 2010). Retention of the GID diagnoses would eventually lead to putting the diagnosis of â€Å"homosexuality† back into the manual (Drescher, 2010). I personally do not see this ocurring, however, it is not inconceivable. Clinical efforts with gender variant children aimed at getting them to reject their felt gender identity and to accept their natal sex were unscientific, unethical, and misguided. Activists labeled such efforts as a form of reparative therapy (Drescher, 2010). Definitions of Conditions in the DSM Transsexualism The second half of the twentieth century saw the development within the psychological and medical communities of a transsexual model and procedures for identifying, describing, and treating individuals who sought sex reassignment. This model viewed transsexualism as a form of mental illness characterized by a pervasive and ongoing wish to be a member of the other sex (Denny, 2004). The 1990s, however, brought an increasing awareness among researchers and clinicians that genital sex reassignment surgery (SRS) is not uniformly desired or sought by all persons who dress and behave as members of the other sex on a full-time basis (Denny, 2004). Therapists Role in Transgendered Issues There is a world of difference when both the therapist and the patient believe the patient to be mentally ill and in crisis, and when both the therapist and the client believe the client to be healthy and self-actualized and contemplating a life-altering decision (Denny, 2004). There is evidence that is reasonably strong that psychotherapeutic interventions are not particularly successful with transgendered individuals (Zucker, 2008). The empirical evidence from adulthood suggests that gender dysphoria is best treated through hormonal and surgical interventions, particularly in carefully evaluated patients (Zucker, 2008). Today’s client is likely to be educated about transgender issues, to know his or her options, and to have a broad-based support system. The therapist can and should provide factual information, help the client understand the available options, and make necessary referrals. This can prove difficult to a therapist unfamiliar with the transgender model, hence it is important to be educated in this area (Denny, 2004). Psychiatrists and other caregivers should be careful not to confuse their personal beliefs about gender with the clinical needs of the patients they are treating. Therapists should know that despite nonsurgical lifestyle options now open to transgendered people, transsexuals tend to view SRS as the treatment of choice (Denny, 2004). In most communities, there are not enough such specialists available to allow for two different roles needed of specialists: one who is the therapist and one (or two, in the case of surgery recommendations) who is the evaluator. Thus, clinicians often find themselves in dual roles of therapist and evaluator. This frustrates many clinicians who worry that clients will withhold information that would aid in the therapeutic process for fear that it will jeopardize their chances of acquiring letters of recommendation (Griffin, 2011).